By Dana W. Reynolds
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| The town of Djenne in Mali is one of several sites in the Sahel and Sudan regions whose roots by tradition date back to the days of the pharaohs. Photo credit 300td.org |
The author of the the book Aghram Nadharif, (2003), "According to the stereotyped image, the Garamantes are a black people (e.g. Ptolemy, 1.8.5; cf. Snowden 2001: 260-261 with full bibliography; Mattingly 2003: 89), part of the larger ethnic group of the Aethiopes (Desanges and Camps 1985). They are naked (nudi Garamantes: Lucan, Bellum civile IV 334) and burned by the sun..." (Mariano, Liverani, 2003, p. 432). : Ahel Gara is a general Tuareg name for people that were cultivators, though often seminomadic found throughout North Africa, the Sahara and Sahel. They originally occupied places like Gara Mez- Zawaga in the Dahkhla Oasis west of the Nile and Gara Krima in the Wargla Oasis of the Mz’ab (Algeria) and towns named Garama or Jerma in Libya.
These Djerma came to be known as DJerma or Zarma Songhai and were descendants of an ancient "Ethiopian" people named "Garamantes". The author or the "Garamantian Kingdom and their Southern Border" writes: "According to the stereotyped image, the Garamantes are a black people (e.g. Ptolemy, I.8.5; cf. Snowden 2001: 260-261 with full bibliography; Mattingly 2003: 89), part of the larger ethnic group of the Aethiopes (Désanges and Camps 1985)
For thousands of years the more
war-like pastoralists among the Afro-Asiatic speakers have lived in symbiotic
client-caretaker or client-vassal relationship with Nilo-Saharan speakersand other populations.
This relationship in the world of both African and Asia, between the hamran or hamdan and shamran or shimran. has been touched upon in the allegory of Sam or Shem and Kham or
Kamaya (found even in Indian lore as Chamar and Shamar).
These vassal castes engaged in agricultural and
metallurgical practices among the Berber confederations (they are different then the slave castes). Some were called Anbat or Anbiya whose name may have been derived from the Nobatae or Anbat of the Kharga oasis west of the Nile and Egypt. The latter are
known later as Anbat-Znaga, while the Teda-Dazaga (or Teyzega in Mauritania where they are also called eznaga (znaga). The others appear to have been of Haratin, Teda or
Ikaradan stock like the peoples called Izghan or Azgar or Izaggaren located in
Tassili and other Saharan oases.
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| Dazaga woman of the Teda- Kreda also known as Gorane (Garran) |
The Dazaga are also known as the Daza, Azza, Azzaga. This latter word likely corresponds to the name
of the population once prevalent in the Sahara
called Zagha, Zaghai or Zaggan. They are
semi-nomadic peoples found today in the eastern parts of the Sudan, Chad
and Libya
as Zawaga, Zawagha or Zaghawa and in the West as Sughai. Their name has been variously translated in
texts as Zagha, Zaghai, Sughai, Zaggan, Izghan, Zaghawa, Zuwagha, Zawagha,
Zauge, Azuagha, Azwagha, Sungee, Sanghee, Songhai,
Songhay, Sughai, Zanghi, Zingani, Zanj,
and possibly Znaga. It is this
population or ethnic group who today in Chad
and Sudan
call their dialect Barituki and their ethnicity the “Berberi” or “Baribari”
from which issued the name “Berber”. Their “nobles” as just mentioned
corresponded to the warlike veiled population called Tuareg who name themselves
Imakitan (in Arab texts Iketamani, Roman texts Macuteni or Mactunia), Sanhaja/
Sangira, Hawara or Ait Louiaen or Luwata, and Wusilah (Roman texts Sylli) and
Imaqqoren of certain regions of Sahara and Sahel. In some regions north of Sahara, like the Aures and
Kabyle mountains of Tunisia
and Algeria and the Rif area and Atlas mountains of
Morocco,
these four groups - the original Teda–Garran or Dazaga (Teyzaga), Zaghawa and Tuareg -
comprised the Masmuda and darker-skinned populations of the Kabylia.
There may also have been some tie originally of
the Zaghawa to the populations called Agaw or Agau
in Abyssinia who are related to a group which designated itself Yibir (Ibri in Arabic) as many of the early Zaghai or Zaghawa or Beriberi, or at least their smith
caste, were considered Jewish in Arab medieval texs. (See Part I - From
Proto-Berbers to Moors” Recalling Nilo-Saharan Origins posting and forthcoming
post on this blog – The Berbers as Hebrews). The Agau once had a dynasty called
Zaghwe.
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| Songhay Chief |
Based on certain archaeological and cultural evidence, Eva Meyerwitz in
her "Origins of Sudanic Civilization" suggested that the
seminomadic “Zagha” today called Zaghawa or Zawagha in Chad and Sudan were
responsible for diffusing Nubian Meroeitic elements of Garamantian culture
into Fezzan as well as further west as far as Mauretania near the Atlantic beginning
around the start of the Christian era. She also noted the early medieval manuscripts and the relationship of the people-name Zaghawa to Zaghai, sokai or Zarai, a kingdom which is today known as Songhay or Sonra". The Zaghawa also made use of the camel which is considered to
have come late into the Sahara causing the
proto-Berbers like the Garamantes to forgo the use of horses and
chariots. But the Garamantian cultural links to Nubia, however, date back centuries
before its historical peak in the Roman era (as evident from the pyramids of
Nubian or Meroeitic affinity and other cultural techniques and productions.) Meyerowitz in fact believed these Zagha had
taken over the Garamantian kingdom. However the name Zaghawa may have been the
same as "Zaueces" mentioned in the writings of Herodotus and the same as the "Arzugitani".
The
Zagha or Zaghawa or Zauge peoples were not only self-identified as “Beriberi” or
Berbers, but were probably bringers of the name Berberi to the Sahara and North Africa. The Bali
or Beli a Beja branch of the Zaghawa call themselves Beri or Beriberi.
(Pastoralists of the West African Savannah. 1986, p. 74).
An encyclopedia
on the Islamic world relates the name to that of the ancient Zaueces of
Herodotus (6th c. B.C.) and Arzugitani or Arzuges of Orosius which
is connected to the region named Zeugitana by Pliny (1st c.). It says: “It is very probable
that this name is composed of two elements, zakiya, which is merely a variant of
the Zakiya of the Berber genealogists and Ar. This second
element recurs in the name of the ancient Libyan tribe of Arzugitani
(Ar-zug-itani), identical with the Zauekes of Herodotus and the Zawagha of the Arab historians….” (Najendra Kr Singh, 2001, p. 153). The
name Arzugitana came to refer generally to the peoples of southern Tripolitania (Merrills, 2004, p. 95) who were earlier
named Gaitules.
The
women of the Zauekes served as charioteers in war. These Arzuges or Arzugitani tribes also
inhabited the interior regions of Tripolitania and all the way to Lake Tritonis
in northern Libya
in classical times. The Zavekes or
Zaueces lived between the Maxyans or Maxitani (thought to be the Mazikes i.e.
Tuareg) and the honey making Gyzantes or Zygantes (probably the Iznacen or
Iznagen?) who all smeared themselves with red ochre. The name Zakiya is
ancestral to the Zanata Berbers in general. The same article mentions that “Ifri”,
is held to be the grandfather of Misra which is the ancestor of the Misrata a
group of Hawara Berbers. It is said Ifren was son of Islitan, son of Misra, son
of Zakiya, son of Warsik son of Adidat son of Djana (also written Chana or Jana).
The Misrata are the Tuareg now called Imazuragh. While “Ifri” was ancestor of the Iforas and
Feruan clans of the Tuareg, the Zaghai
were said to descend from Djana or Jana.
Eva
Meyerowitz mentions that Dya or Zuwa the ruler said to have come from Wargla in
the tradition of the Sugai, Zaghai or Songhay was sometimes called Djana. According
to T. Lewicki, “The name 'Wargla' can be found in that of the Moorish 'tribe'
of the Urceliani, referred to by Corippus in the
sixth century” (Lewicki, p. 297).
The
Songhai rulers who were in fact called Sughai, Zaghai, Zaghawa or Zuwagha in
various texts claimed they were descended from Djana who was a descendant of
Mazigh like the Ifren or Ifuras Tuareg (also called Kel Iferouan or Ferwan) and
the former came to be called Djanawa or Djanakerah in parts of the Sudan. It is in
fact the origin of the names Ghana,
Ghanawa or Gnaoua who were derived from the Songhai and Soninke peoples of the Niger. Both of the Songhai
and Tuareg groups comprised the “Zenata” Berbers of Tripolitania or Arzugitana.
According to Jamil Abun-Nasr in the 9th
century the “Zawagha living on the Tripolitanian coast “ helped the Ibadite
ruler Khalaf in the area of Sabratha
also named Zawagha (today pronounced Zawarah or Zuwara by its present peoples)
(1987, p. 46). They also lived at this
time in the Middle Atlas area of Fazaz. Gurara and Tuat or Tuwat were oases
locales and rendezvous spots in Central Algeria for the Zaghai or Wangara and
Tuareg traders in gold coming from Morocco
and Tlemcen and Tunis.
Archeology testifies to the relationship of these
regions of the desert in Algeria
and Tunisia to locations
further east, such as Siwa and Fezzan. In
Tamentit in the Tuat region of Central Algeria,
a stone idol with a ram’s head was found.
Although sacred depictions of the ram date back to the Neolithic period
in the Sahara, the ram was well known to have been a symbol for the deity Ammon
at Siwa and in Egypt.
The peoples of Tuat and Jebel Nafusa in the heart of Arzugitana (Tunisia) knew how to build underground tunnels,
now called foggaras, as in ancient Garamantian Fezzan in Libya.(See Part
I of this post). It is thought some of the Zanata Berbers consisting of
Magherawa, Jarawa, Zawagha and Nafzawa of the regions of Tuat and Mzab came
directly from Cyrenaica in Libya
during the period when the Roman emperor Trajan began to repress the people
there. Many were Jewish or Judaized Berbers.
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| Gourara or Ghurara Berbers of southwestern Algeria are considered Zenata |
By
medieval times the indigenous people of the towns of Righ valley or Wadh Righ (land
of the Maghrawa clan of the Zanata), of Tuwat (such as Tamentit and
Ghurara) and of the M’zab oases (Wargla,
Sidrata, Biskra )had numerous master craftsmen, masons, locksmiths, armourers, tanners,
boot and shoe makers, tailors, and
glassmakers. The towns were industrial and commercial centers possessing beautiful
subterranean and artesian wells and acqueducts and gardens. Their craftsmen and
artisans mined, worked and traded in gold and other metals and hence “the phrase
the golden trade of the Moors”. (Williams,
p.
240)
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| In the Gourara oasis a water tunnels or foggara irrigates the desert surroundings. They were built earlier by the ancestral Garamantes of Fezzan (Libya). |
Trade roots of the early Garawan or Wangara
had long before the Islamic invasions of North Africa of the 9th
century led from Tuat and its towns to southern Mauritania
site of the ancient capitals of Ghana
including Audoghost and Walata and Kumbi Saleh by way of Teghazza. The earliest
mention of Ghana
is said to have been in the 8th century by a Persian author a few centuries
later Al Bakri or Bekri described the culture.
“…al-Bakri described the eleventh-century
court at Kumbi Saleh, where he saw gold-embroidered caps, golden saddles,
shields and swords mounted with gold, and dogs' collars adorned with gold and
silver. The Soninke managed to keep the source of their gold (the Bambuk mines,
most notably) secret from Muslim traders. Yet gold production and trade were
important activities that undoubtedly mobilized hundreds of thousands of
African people. Leaders of the ancient kingdom of Ghana
accumulated wealth by keeping the core of pure metal, leaving the unworked
native gold to be marketed by their people.”
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| Ruins from the town of Kumbi Saleh (in southeast Mauretania) kingdom of Ghana |
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A few modern Soninke women |
It is
said that even the dogs of Ghana
in al-Bekri’s time wore gold and silver collars and had pedigree. Other trade
roots ran from Tahart in the Rustamid kingdom through the Zanata town of Sijilmassa towards Ghana. The peoples of Ghana, the Ghanawa or
Djanawa were the Soninke traders or Wangara who were also known as Wankara,
Wakore and Sarakore or Sarakolle. They were originally Sughai/Zaghai/Songhai people who had
adopted the Mande dialects from the Niger region and likely were a
mixture of both Mande and Sughai.
Hasna Elbachariya
Hasna Elbachariya
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| A king leads a procession in the 19th century Zaghawa kingdom of Kanem-Bornu |
Al Maqrizi the 15th
century writer claimed in fact in his day all nations between Abyssinia on the
south, Nubia on the east Barkah on the north and Tekrur on the East including
the kingdoms of Kanem and Bornu established between the regions of Nigeria and Chad from the 9th century were occupied by or called Zaghai (better known
as Songhai).(Cooley, 1841, 98, fn. 157, Barth, 1967, p. 107). (Barka was a very
ancient town in Libya north
of Fezzan.) The Zaghawa were the the mainstock
of Kanem when it was under the Sefuwa dynasty called Maghuri (Imaqquran Tuareg)
11th century. The rulers claimed descent from the Himyarite Sa’ifs
of ancient pre-Islamic Arabia dating back to
the time of Moses. (Lange, D., 2011 ). The name Zaghai also designated the kingdom of Takrur (Laya, p. 454) whose people later
mixed with the early Fulani people to become the Toucouleurs.
According to Harold MacMichael -The traveler and observer al-Idrisi, born at the end of the 11th century in Spain spoke of the ethnic ties of the Sidrata to the Zaghawa or Zaghai. In the 10th century the Berbers called Sodraya, Sadarata or Sidrata who had named the Syrtes or Syrtica area of the Libyan coast (the Gulf of Sidra) were the occupants Biskra, Sidrata and Wargla or Warghalan oases towns in the M’zab region. Around the 11th century the Sidrata fled south to Gara Krima in Wargla oases area when the Fatimid army conquered Biskra. The Sidrata were said to belong to the Luwata.
According to Harold MacMichael -The traveler and observer al-Idrisi, born at the end of the 11th century in Spain spoke of the ethnic ties of the Sidrata to the Zaghawa or Zaghai. In the 10th century the Berbers called Sodraya, Sadarata or Sidrata who had named the Syrtes or Syrtica area of the Libyan coast (the Gulf of Sidra) were the occupants Biskra, Sidrata and Wargla or Warghalan oases towns in the M’zab region. Around the 11th century the Sidrata fled south to Gara Krima in Wargla oases area when the Fatimid army conquered Biskra. The Sidrata were said to belong to the Luwata.
Wrote Idrisi - “ ‘the two most important residences of the
Zaghawa are Sakwa and Shama. There is
there a nomad tribe called Sodraya who pass as Berbers.’ These Sodraya, he
says, ‘resemble the Zaghawa in their habits and customs, identify themselves with them racially, and are commercially
dependent upon them…’” (MacMichael, H.A. 1967, 106) The
Zaghai inhabitants there were called Takrur.( Cooley, 98). The Sidrata appear to have been
Tuareg-affiliated.
Ibn Batuta referred to the Zaghai as Zaghiyah or Zaghah. (Cooley, . p.
99). Leo Africanus 16th
also states that the "Sungai " (i.e. Zaghai) language was used in five states. Ibn Khaldun 14th
c., speaks of the Zaghawa as among the veiled Sanhaja. It is thus not surprising
to find an author in E.J. Brill’s Encyclopaedia
of Islam, using another variant of the name -“Zaggan”, - and saying
they were originally Sanhaja who in the west were absorbed into the Masmuda and
Makili (Banu Maqil) of the Sus (Colin, 1993, p. 395).
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| Ruins of Tamentit (in the Adrar region of Algeria) - land of the Zuwagha and Maghrawat es-Sudani |
The words Zaghawa and Zawagha have been used interchangeably by writers on the Berbers over the past century. H. Mones wrote of the Zaghawa in his article, "The Conquest of North Africa and Berber Resistance" for UNESCO noting that "the Zanata (or Zanatians) inhabited Cyrenaica and Tripolitania, extending southward as far as Djabal Nafusa and the oases of Fezzan, the predominant confederations of kabilas being those of the Hawwara, Luwata, Nafusa, and Zaghawa" (Mones, 1988, p. 228) Abun-Nasr and other writers more recently have used the spelling "Zawagha". Najeebabadi wrote "Gradually
Idris become popular among Zawagha, Lawata,
Zanata, Sadrota, Meknes and the Ghanaza clans of the Berbers” (2001,
p. 222).
Budgett Meakin in his The Moorish Empires also wrote that among the first Berber tribes mentioned by Ibn khaldun (14th c.) to become allies to the Idrisid ruler Abd al Majid were "the Zawagha, Lawata, Sadrata, Nafza..." (Meakin, 1899, p. 36).
Budgett Meakin in his The Moorish Empires also wrote that among the first Berber tribes mentioned by Ibn khaldun (14th c.) to become allies to the Idrisid ruler Abd al Majid were "the Zawagha, Lawata, Sadrata, Nafza..." (Meakin, 1899, p. 36).
The Zingani were also Zaghawa whom further west were called “Sungai”
(the Songhai) whose dialect was used in Walata, Timbuktu, Mali,
Jenne and Kagho (Cooley, 1841, p. 99 and 125). Of Jenne it was said, by the writer of Tarikh as-Sudan, " it is because of this blessed town that camel caravans come to Timbuktu from all points of the horizon."
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| Ruins of the old town of Walata |
The two major tribes in Fez
in Morocco
at the time were the Zawagha and the Beni Yarghish who lived in tents made of
goat hair. According to Ibn Idhar, born
in 14th c. Andalusia, Yusuf bin Tashfin of the Lamtuna (Aulamidden
Tuareg) Almoravid dynasty penetrated the Moroccan Rif area in the 12th century and found there the Matmata Tuareg and Zuwagha. The towns of Algiers and oran were occupied as well by these clans in the same century.
Similar to the ancient Mauri, the
Zaghawa live in huts, but are also semi-nomadic and obtain much of their
livelihood through herding cattle, camels and sheep and harvesting wild grains.
They are first mentioned with the Tubu or Teda Garawan (todays Gor’an) by Al
Yaquubi (9th c.) and are also people that traded slaves as did the Teda
and ancient Garamantes.
The Zuwagha were also present in several parts of Spain approximately a thousand years ago like the Jarawa and other Zanata and Masmuda. The Jarawa (Garawa) were said to have been a "huge" proportion of the Zanata of North Africa (Taha, 1988, p. 24). The former are supposed to have named the present town of Azuagh in Badajoz, Spain in part of what was Andalusia. Idrisi mentions there a Moorish fortress in the 12th century. The name Zuwagha as mentioned above was sometimes pronounced Zuwara or Suera. Suera de la Sierra d'Espadan in Valencia in the province of Castellon. (Velazquez, p. 140).
The Zuwagha were also present in several parts of Spain approximately a thousand years ago like the Jarawa and other Zanata and Masmuda. The Jarawa (Garawa) were said to have been a "huge" proportion of the Zanata of North Africa (Taha, 1988, p. 24). The former are supposed to have named the present town of Azuagh in Badajoz, Spain in part of what was Andalusia. Idrisi mentions there a Moorish fortress in the 12th century. The name Zuwagha as mentioned above was sometimes pronounced Zuwara or Suera. Suera de la Sierra d'Espadan in Valencia in the province of Castellon. (Velazquez, p. 140).
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| Castle or Castillo de Mirmontes in Azuaga (Badajoz, Spain) said to have belonged to the Zuwaga tribe in Spain |
Zuwagha
or Azuwagh Berbers were a branch or caste of the Sanhaja-related Kitama or
Imakitan Tuareg according to the Djamhara (Velasquez, 1969, p. 140), while Ibn
Hazm makes them Berbers of Botr or Al-abter stock. Ibn Khaldun speaks of the Zaghawa as among the
veiled Sanhaja. It is thus not surprising to find an author in E.J. Brill’s Encyclopaedia of Islam,
using another variant of the name -“Zaggan”, - and saying they were originally
Sanhaja who in the west were absorbed into the Masmuda and Makili ( Machlyes?)
of the Sus (Colin, 1993, p. 395).
By
the 9th century most of the Ibadites (Zenata) traders from Wargla,
Jebel Nafusa and the Wed Righ had settled in Audughost an early capital of Ghana (modern southern Mauretania). According to scholars, the name
Barbara and al-Barabir was attached to the Djanawa or Soninke (Wangara/Wakore)
of Dar Tichitt in early Arab sources and Portuguese chronicles (Lewicki, 1988,
p. 313).
According to Arab sources of the sixth/twelfth century (Kitab al-Istibsar and al-Zuhri), the blacks known as the Barbar or Barbara (Arabic plural:Barabir) formed the population of the Sudanese land of Zafunu, corresponding to present-day Diafunu. They counted among the Djanawa that is to say the blacks and also, according to al-Zuhri, lived in the center of the desert (probably the deserts and steppes of south-east Mauritania) and in areas in the vicinity of Ghana and Tadmekka (north of Gao), the inhabitants of which invaded their lands in order to take slaves….The Barbara believed themselves to be the noblest of the Sudanese peoples and claimed that the sovereigns of Ghana came from their ‘tribe’.
The Barbara would thus appear to be a group of the Soninke.”(Lewicki, p.
313).
Many of these Mande speakers Barbar were thus known
as Djanawa, Gnawa,
Guineans, Djanawa, Ignawen, Djanah and Djenakherah (Lewicki, 1988, p. 313;
Williams, 2003, p. 300; MacQueen, 1821, p. 35).
It has long been
recognized that the Bavares of the Mauri Bavares of the Sitifensis of the
ancient Maghreb region was frequently written
as Babar or Barbares. More recently
David Goldenberg has acknowledged this in the article: Rabbinic Knowledge of
Black Africa (Sifre Deut. 320). He
writes as follows:
The Barbares are mentioned in Julius Honorius, Cosmographia (5th century) A 47, A 48 (var.Barbaricen(s), Barbarigens), B 48 (Barbaricenses), ed. Riese, Geog. Lat. Min., pp. 53-54; Libergenerationis 197.67 (Chronographus anni 353), ed. Mommsen, p. 107, ed. Riese, p. 167; Laterculus Veronensis (4th century), ed. Riese, p. 129. Barbares is a variant form of the name Bavares, a people of Mauretania Tingitana and/or Caesariensis, who possibly appear also under the name Babari. Note the association of Barbares with Mauretania in the Laterculus V V Veronensis (Riese, p. 129): “Item gentes quae in Mauretania sunt: Mauri [Quinque]gentiani, Mauri Mazices, Mauri Barbares, Mauri Bacuates....” (Goldenberg, 1998, p. 3 fn. 3)Retrieved pdf file http://www.sas.upenn.edu/~dmg2/sifre%20as%20publ.%20with%20additions.pdf
The
Soninke are usually also associated with the names Wakore and Wangara which are
assumed by many researchers to be derived from the same root although that is
not certain. It is also said “There is a tradition that that Ouakoré, Ouangara
and Songhay came from the same ancestor, a certain Tarâs from Yemen, who had
three sons of the names of Ouakoré, Ouangara and Songhay. The elder son Ouakoré
was given the kingship under the title "Kaya maghan" (king of gold).” Taras or Daris is the ancient Berber ancestor whom the Greeks called Atlas.
“Wakoré/Wangara”
according to Andreas Massing “were Soninke clans specialized in trade, Islamic
scholarship and law who migrated in the 14-15th centuries from the Awkar, now
on Mauritanian territory, into the Mali provinces of Mema, Beledugu, Zaga,
Bendugu, Massina, and further East and South, perhaps founding such towns as
Odienne, Koro, Boron and Kong.” . The
early Mande and Songhai are considered to have lived in places like Dar Tichitt
and Jenne which were forerunners to the ancient empires of Ghana and Songhai.
Their Soninke descendants today in Mauretania are a fisher folk called Imraguen.
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| Ruins of the ancient Soninke town of Dar Tichitt in Mauretania |
Ibn Battuta
identified the merchants of Zaghari as Wanjarata (Wangara) and as Saghanogho or
Sanogo Ibadites. The latter were either
Tuareg or their vassals called Guirga (Sarakholle, Wakore, Songhay). Tuareg and
Fulani are sometimes called “white” or sometimes “red” in the Arab and African texts respectively, while
otherwise called blacks or Sudani). In the region of the modern country of Mauretania
and Senegal, the Songhai traders who were mixed with Mande-speakers and
called Soninke or Aswanek became known as Imraguen.
Video of Imraguen
Video of Imraguen
Massing wrote
that the name Wakore are generally associated with the Songhai
and the Wangara with the Mande. In any
case, the names of the Saghanogo, Songhai, Zingani, Zaggan, Zaghai, Songhai,
and Zaghawa, have the same etymological root and were names for the merchant
class of gold traders who controlled the economies of so many kingdoms of the Sudan (Laya,
1992, p. 454, fn. 7; Cooley, 1841, p. 98, n.157).
Abun-Nasr, J (1987) – A history of the Maghreb
in the Islamic period. p. 46
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the early
history and geography of Central Africa. London.
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Mélanges de la Casa de Velasquez: Nouvelle Serie Volume 5
Williams, J.J. (2003). Hebrewisms of West
Africa.
(Please feel free to make copies in case anything disappears. There are many people that publish, or copy and paste the information from this blog onto other sites. However, as a person with multicultural interests and background, I would appreciate if the above text is not copied and pasted without quotes under pseudonyms, or anonymously, to other web-sites in combination with trading curses or using abusive words with other individuals, or else, verbally insulting, denigrating, or attempting to dehumanize various ethnic groups, i.e., "white people", Europeans, "Arabs", " Jews", "Turks", Israelis, etc. Please do not modify or add to text directly copied or taken from this site. Thanks in advance for your consideration. : )
(Please feel free to make copies in case anything disappears. There are many people that publish, or copy and paste the information from this blog onto other sites. However, as a person with multicultural interests and background, I would appreciate if the above text is not copied and pasted without quotes under pseudonyms, or anonymously, to other web-sites in combination with trading curses or using abusive words with other individuals, or else, verbally insulting, denigrating, or attempting to dehumanize various ethnic groups, i.e., "white people", Europeans, "Arabs", " Jews", "Turks", Israelis, etc. Please do not modify or add to text directly copied or taken from this site. Thanks in advance for your consideration. : )
